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Women in Christianity

Women's Roles in the Christian Church

Women had a prominent role in the early Christian Church. Later developments in the official church hierarchy (such as the restriction of the priesthood to only men) tended to reduce the influence that women were able to officially wield. Following the Protestant Reformation, women eventually began to receive larger roles in Protestant Churchs. Many Protestant denominations began to ordain female clergy, and some female religious leaders (such as the founder of the Shakers) rose to positions of prominence. The role of women in the Roman Catholic Church continues to be hotly debated; before his death, Pope John Paul II indicated that the church remained hostile to the notion of ordained women. Current views on the ordination of women are widely split among different Christian traditions.

Theological Views of Women in Christianity

Main Article: Christian views of women

A comparitively small number of prominent female figures have traditionally defined the parameters of Christian theological views of women. Eve has long been villanized as having led astray her husband Adam. This event has often been interpreted by later theologians as indicating that women were likely to lead men astray, and contributed to the villification of women as sensual and dangerous in the Christian tradition.

Mary, the mother of Jesus, enjoys great popularity in the Christian world. Her growing popularity has been seen by some as an indication that the Roman Catholic Church is growing more likely to accept women as religious figures. However, some feminist commentators believe that the strong emphasis on Mary's virginity continues to create an atmosphere in which females, and particular female sexuality, are regarded as dangerous or sinful.

Mary Magdalene, a disciple and supporter of Christ identified as a prostitute by a medieval Pope, has recently enjoyed a great surge in interest. Certain apocryphal Christian scriptures (such as the Gospel of Thomas) identify Mary Magdalene as one of the most important disciples of Christ. The fact that the risen Christ first appeared to Mary Magdelene, rather than his male disciples, is interpreted by some as an indication that Mary Magdelene was favored by Christ. Her identification with the prostitute from an earlier anecdote in the Bible has been construed by some as an attempt to sully the image of the Biblical Magdalene, and enforce patriarchical supremecy. The book The Da Vinci Code talks a great deal about this sort of thing.

Feminist theology has sought to recover a more poisitive role for women in religious life through the analysis of scripture and practice in light of the principles of modern feminism.

See Also

• Old Testament views of women
• Quaker views of women

Women in Judaism

Main Article: Role of women in Judaism

Women in Islam

While Western observers are often highly critical of the treatement of women in the Islamic tradition, scholars have often regarded Islam as being well-disposed towards women, when its actions are viewed against the backdrop of early Arab society. Women in early Arab society, like in many patriarchal tribal cultures, were regarded nearly as property. Their rights were few, and they were constantly required to submit to the wills of their parents or husbands. Islam, by contrast, enshrined a number of rights for women in the Koran that they did not previously possess. Women were guaranteed the right to inherit property, albeit at a reduced rate compared to male siblings. The right to divorce was gauranteed. Limits were placed on the number of wives that a man could possess, and the permission of previous wives was required. While the Koran did command that women must dress 'modestly', many restrictions on the dress and behaviour of women currently observed in Islamic societies stem not from Islam, but rather from earlier tribal customs. Many of the restrictions placed on women are seen justified as protecting them from the uncontrolled apetites of men, rather than seeking control for its own sake.

Women in Hinduism

Women's Roles in Hinduism

Women have traditionally held a greatly reduced role in Hindu religious life compared with men. Unlike their husbands, women of the twice born castes were forbidden from learning Sanskrit or studying the Vedas in ancient times. Women were regarded as primarily being responsible for the running of the household, and the rearing of children. A women's own life was seen as being inexorably tied to that of her husband, which often created hardships for women who were widowed. Some traditional accounts indicate that women were expected to follow their husbands into death, throwing themselves on his cremation pyre as a sign of their devotion. While it is unlikely that this practice was ever widespread, attempts to 'resurrect' it by Hindu fundamentalists- sometimes against the wishes of the widow- have drawn criticism in recent years. Widows continue to be a marginalized sector of Indian society, particularly among the urban poor who may lack the support structure necesary to provide for widowed women. Charitable groups in large cities, particularly cities associated with pilgrimage (i.e Varanasi) often run shelters for homeless widows.

Hindu Views on Women

The Vedic tradition paid relatively little attention to the role of women. The divine was seen as being originally possessed of both a male and female character (the male sky-deity Dyaus and the female earth-deity Prthivi), but most of the specific deities discussed in the Vedic texts are masculine (i.e Indra, Varuna, Agni). The primary exception is the dawn-deity Ushas, who is praised for her beauty in several Vedic verses.

In later Hindu thought, the role of the divine feminine is greatly expanded. The tradition surrounding Maha Devi, the great goddess, is seen as being one of the three primary streams of modern Hindu devotion (the other two being Shaivism and Vaishnavism). Female aspects of the divine include not only models of devoted husbands and mothers (such as the various consorts of the male gods), but also female figures that are decidedly aggressive and powerful, such as Kali and Durga. Female deities are often associated with the tantric tradition.

In the legends of the early life of Krishna, a prominent role is played by his lover Radha. Her love for Krishna- which includes both devotive and erotic elements- is seen as being an ideal model for the love of the gods by Vaishnava devotees. The love of Radha and Krishna is a love that can transcend the regular roles of society, and encourages 'divine excess'. The relationship between Rama and his wife in the Ramayana, by contrast, conforms much more closely to Vedic norms of social life.

Women in Buddhism

Women's Roles in Buddhism

• Founding of the bhikkhuni sangha
  • Maha-prajapati
• Disciplinary rules
  • Rationale in light of Indian society
• Dissolution of the Theravada bhikkhuni sangha
  • Asymetric support for male and female religious institutions
• Mae ji and other quasi-ordained roles
• The ordained female Sangha in East Asia
• Attempts to resurrect the bhikkhuni linneage in Thailand and Sri Lanka

Buddhist Views of Women

• Tripitaka statements on the religious potential of women
• Malesness and enlightenment (Mahayana vs. non-Mahayana views)
  • Devi from the Vimalakirti
• Women as danger to the spiritual progress of men, and vice versa
  • 'Soft fetters' bit from Dhp; sensuality and the battle against Mara
• Lay ethic and support of traditional Vedic/Brahmanist roles
  • Challanges to Vedic standards and beliefs regarding gender- even in non-dgf