User:RichardNixon1968/sandbox

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Article Evaluation: Economic History of Zimbabwe[edit]

One of the issues with the article is a lack of citations. Several paragraphs, such as in the "1980s" section, have few to no citations within them. The word choice when talking about the ZANU government also shows something of a bias, with the author calling them a "regime" and stating many of the economic decisions were done solely with an eye of propagating their own power. That may well have been the case, but for a scholarly article it betrays a bias against the ZANU-PF government. This is compounded by several sections in which the author draws conclusions, interpreting the events of Zimbabwe, which is a no for Wikipedia, while also providing no justification for his points through sources. One of the more egregious examples of this comes when the author calls the media " the huge parastatal sector of the economy", a rather unprofessional remark. There is also a lack of consistency with "percent" being represented either by the word or the "%" symbol depending on the section. The section "2000-Present" is also quite sparse, especially considering that was the era in which the most significant events of Zimbabwe's economic history occurred. The sources seem solid for the most part, however at least one of the articles simply links to an error message, thus this should be updated as well. The article is rated Start-class and top-importance, showing the need the article has for a full scale rewrite to make it reach the professional goals for which Wikipedia strives.

Economic History of the Arab World[edit]

The Gold Trade[edit]

West Africa[edit]

Map of the Ghana Empire

Around the 8th century, The Arab people understood the significance of gold and its economic impact.[1] Arabs participated in the gold trade, specifically within the Ghana goldfields near the 9th century.[2] The people of Ghana also participated in the gold trade from its beginning and began to purposefully dominate this trade.[3] North African regions financially expanded as well due to their shipping of gold to various territories.[4] Gold was a commodity to the Arabs near the 8th Century, which Africa would supply.[5] Gold was good for the economic growth of the Arab people.[6] As silver was declining in worth, the access to gold allowed the economic value of silver to be saved.[6]

Mansa Musa or Musa I of Mali

Mansa Musa[edit]

Mansa Musa, a leader from West Africa, impacted the Arab world with the vast amount of gold he transported to Mecca during a religious pilgrimage.[7] During his trip, he proved extravegant with his gold.[7] Although he is not said to have traded his gold, Mansa Musa proved his wealth to the Meccans by handing out the gold he brought on his trip.[7] Mansa Musa and his people specifically harmed the Cairo economy due to the tremendous amount of gold they spread in the area.[8]

Jizya[edit]

The term “Jizya” has referred to slightly different things throughout history, and the exact meaning/purpose/execution of the Jizya is debated.  It is mentioned in the Qur'an as part of the law, but the interpretation of the law has varied throughout time by the Muslims.[9][10] Possible interpretations of the Jizya, and execution of these interpretations, have included a collective tribute, a poll tax, and a discriminatory tax.[9][11].  One argument pertaining to the purpose of the Jizya is that it had nothing to do with discrimination, but only helped the government keep tabs on the population, and maintain a structured society.[10]  This argument, however, contradicts what is stated in the Qur’an’s verses about the Jizya.  These verses give the idea of the Jizya as an act of humiliation and ethnic diversion.[10]  The Jizya used to be a tribute required of non-Muslim people under the protection of the Muslims which gave this lesser people group or society, unable to protect themselves from outside Muslim opposition, the option to submit to the Muslim people, and come under their protection.  In return for this protection, the minority people are required to pay a tribute to the Muslim government.[10] The Jizya often provided a source of financial support for the Muslims to continue their raids and expansion in the form of Jihads.[10]

Swahili Coast[edit]

Early History[edit]

Map of the Swahili Coast

Trade along the Swahili coast dates back to 1st century C.E. up to 19th century C.E. Though there are not many reliable written records of Trade along the East African coast between 1st and 11th centuries, trade is still occurred between the Indian ocean coast (Azania) and the rest of the world (India, China and Arabian Countries). Interaction between these areas was assisted by the knowledge of the monsoon winds by traders who traveled the Indian Ocean.[12]

Trade along the Swahili coast which ranged from the 11th century to the 19th century, though already locally established, was greatly influenced by the spread of Islam, which came about from intermarriage by Islamic traders and the local Bantu people.[12]

Arab Presence[edit]

Arabic presence along of the Swahili coast began with the migration of Arabs from Arabia to the East African Coast because of demographic and political struggles back in Arabia. Later in the 8th century, trade along the coast was influenced the majority of Muslim visitors to the coast of East Africa. This trade fueled the development of coastal port towns such as Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Kilwa and also the growth of Swahili, a lingua Franca stemming from the interaction between Local Bantu people and Arab immigrants.[13]

Omani Arabs[edit]

A Fort in Kilwa

One of the major Arabic influences along the Swahili coast was the arrival of the Omani Arabs. Renowned as great mariners, the Omani traders were well known along the Indian Ocean. The arrival of the Omani Arabs along the east African coast in the late seventeenth century replaced the Portuguese influence along the Swahili Coast after their defeat at Mombasa.[14] Trade along the Swahili coast increased with the Omani Arabs domination of the Swahili Coast. Development of Zanzibar between 1804 and 1856, increased the economic development of the Swahili Coast due to its role as an importer of Ivory and Slaves from the African Interior, through long distance trader.[15]The Omani traders then exported slaves and ivory from the East African coast due to a high demand in Europe and India.[16] The availability of slaves made them a suitable source of labor on the growing clove plantations of Zanzibar and Pemba and thus further increasing the demand for slaves along the coast which stimulated long distance trading within Eastern and Central Afrcia. Some of these slaves were bought as household slaves in the Swahili Arabs homes.[16]

Trade with African Interior[edit]

Tippu Tip

Trading along the Swahili coast between the Swahili-Arabs and Interior tribes stimulated the development of the Interior African tribes. Because of the expansion of trade within the African interior, African rulers started developing politically with an aim to expand their kingdoms and territories in order to be able to have control of the trade routes and mineral sources within their territories. Due to the interaction between the Swahili-Arab traders and interior African tribes, Islam also spread as a religious language. The reign of the Sultans of Zanzibar between 1804 - 1888 and their dominion of the East African Coast from Somalia to Mozambique greatly influenced trade along the Swahili Coast.[15]

Tippu Tip and the Slave Trade[edit]

Before the abolition of Slave trade in 1873 when a Proclamation of the prohibition of slave trafficking from the interior to the coast was issued, Tippu Tip was amongst the most well known Swahili-Arab traders. Having set out from Zanzibar in his conquest to obtain Ivory, he defeated Nsama of Trowa and established his own rule in Manyema country in order to control the Ivory and slave trade.[15]

Crude Oil[edit]

East Africa[edit]

Eastern Africa, more specifically Sudan, positioned itself for growth through the oil trade.[17] With a sense of possible hope for Sudanese economic profit, Arabs financed manufactory motives in Sudan, expanding products to help industrialize Sudan during the late 20th century.[17] Despite the Arabs placing finances within Sudan territory, this seemed to have caused more issues as Ethiopians swarmed into Sudan, putting Sudan in a financially tough situation.[17]

South Africa[edit]

South Africa’s history of oil imports from the Middle East shows a reliance on Iranian oil during the 1970’s.[18] How the South African economy fared after South Africa not longer received oil from Iranian authorities is further explained as the authorities in South Africa are said to have taken action regarding this issue.[18]

Waqf[edit]

The Citadel of Qaitbay was maintained by Waqfs.

A Waqf is a charitable endowment given by Muslims to help benefit their societies,[19] and they had a major role in the economy, the development of cities, and travel.[20] Typically, a Waqf took the form of rulers creating something for the benefit of their people.[19] It required creating something that would be a source of renewable revenue and directing that revenue towards something, be it a specific individual, the community, or the local mosque so long as it brought one closer to God.[21] Schools were also beneficiaries of Waqf due to Islam viewing education as a form of worship.[22] The individual making a Waqf was not expected to benefit except in the spiritual sense.[23]The Waqf was a pivotal part of building infrastructure as it would often lead to an increase in the number of businesses surrounding the endowed institution.[21] Waqfs were also used to protect cities in warfare, such as the Citadel of Qaitbay, which was built to defend Alexandria in the mid-fifteenth century.[22] While controversial, cash was also sometimes used as a form of Waqf with the interest on it supporting the beneficiaries.[20]

West Africa[edit]

In West Africa, Waqf was practiced little with the exceptions being Timbuktu, Jenne, and Masina[24] as West African leaders would typically gather and redistribute wealth in more impermanent ways to increase their own power.[24]

Egypt[edit]

Tombs of the Mamluks

In Egypt, The Mamluks practiced Waqf, seeing it as a way of keeping their property safe from government hands and as a way of transferring the bulk of their wealth to their children, going around the laws that prevented this directly.[19] This became problematic in the 14th century when soldiers in the Egyptian army were rewarded by giving them temporary fiefs. Many of these were turned into Waqfs by their owners however, meaning the Mamluk government could no longer reclaim them for redistribution. This would effect the size of the army. In 1378-79, Barquq argued this was causing harm to the state and used this as a justification for dissolving the agrarian Waqfs.[22] Waqfs also served as a way for the Mamluk converts to Islam to demonstrate their faith by participating in it.[19] It also provided a way for the Mamluk rulers to demonstrate their power and wealth.[19] Waqf would become more popular under the Ottoman rulers in later years.[19]

Criticism[edit]

Waqf was often used by families to keep money within the immediate family.[25] In the 19th century in Tripoli, Waqf was often used to benefit the nuclear family, excluding the extended family that would have gotten a share of the wealth had the normal inheritance laws been followed.[19] Because of this, the Waqf has been criticized for allowing wealth to be maintained by the few.[26]

Hajj[edit]

The Hajj is the fifth pillar of Islam that requires Muslims to travel to Mecca once in their lifetimes, provided they have the means.[27] Until the 18th century, however, these trips were done infrequently by people of the Arab world. Typically, only the wealthy or dedicated scholars were able to go on the Hajj.[28] In some countries, such as Cameroon, the Hajj therefore became a status symbol for the wealthy.[29]

Trade in Hajj[edit]

Ibn Saud

Trade was allowed on the Hajj and often those on it would have to trade along the way in order to finance their lengthy travels.[30] Typically, money was brought along to give to the Bedouin tribes as well as to the holy cities which the pilgrims would journey through.[31] During the Ottoman Empire's control, these goods would be taxed.The level of taxes rose sharply under Hussein. These levels were lowered when Ibn Saud took power.[31] Merchants would also participate in the Hajj as this allowed them to receive protection from the guards who accompanied pilgrims on the Hajj.[30] Their trading in the regions along the pilgrimage often provided numerous economic benefits to those regions.[31]This allowed the merchant caravans to become more successful and helped make them a greater part of the economy of the Arab world.[30] When Hajj travelers returned to their native lands, they would often bring goods with them which would cause shifts in designs, raising prices, as well as bringing back items to sell directly.[29]

Transportation[edit]

The pilgrims of the Hajj first traveled by Muslim state sponsored caravans, but these were replaced by European owned steam ships in the later 19th century which increased the number of travelers, but put the transportation industry of the Hajj in non-Muslim hands.[31] In 1908, the Ottoman empire built a train system returned some control of the industry to Muslims.[31]

Gathering during the Hajj

Modern[edit]

In more recent years, Saudi Arabia has seen an increase in revenue due to the tourism industry during the Hajj. In 1994, the Saudi government emphasized tourism as a way to increase their economy.[30] In 2000 it was estimated that nearly sixty percent of all tourism in Saudi Arabia came for the Hajj or the similar ‘Umrah.[30] Over forty percent of money spent by tourists being for the Hajj or the ‘Umrah.[30] The increase in the tourism industry during the Hajj has helped to solve the country’s large segment of unemployed foreign workers from other countries[30] such as Egypt and India people.[30]

Peer Review[edit]

Y'alls article is amazing! Great images, sections, and references. I maybe saw one grammar error, but otherwise it looks great. Bekah

Last sentence of Mansa Musa paragraph - needs a reference (also I thought that it was mostly the Egyptian economy that tanked).

Jizya paragraph - put interpretation in first sentence (also confusing and had to reread)

Tippu Tip: problem sentence- Tippu Tip was amongst the well known Swahili-Arab traders (confusing, use different wording)

East Africa: bit of a run on (two sentences maybe?), word better - With a sense of possible hope for Sudanese economic profit, Arabs financed manufactory motives in Sudan, expanding products to help industrialize Sudan during the late 20th century

East Africa: what are you trying to say? - Despite the Arabs finances within Sudan territory, this (what?) seemed to have caused more issues as Ethiopians swarmed into Sudan, putting Sudan in a financially tough situation (why?)

South Africa - How the South African economy fared after South Africa not longer received oil from Iranian authorities is further explained (where?) as the authorities in South Africa are said to have taken action regarding this issue (what action? link?)

Modern: better wording -such as Egyptian and Indian people to such as Egyptians and Indians

-Liz

Good article! One thing that I noticed in your article is a lack of hyperlinks to other articles. That's one of the things that makes Wikipedia super awesome, so it would be cool to add a bunch of those so a reader could learn more about the related topics. That's just a little thing that can be added later (heck, I think it's kinda fun, so I was tempted to do it for you, but I refrained).

Now for the meat! The first paragraph is contains good information, but it contains a couple of typos (one place has two spaces in a row and another has the word "to" twice in a row) and is a little choppy to read. Consider combining some of the sentences to make it flow better. The second paragraph on Mansa Musa could be expanded a little bit to include more of the Mali and Songhai empires. Also, Mansa Musa is recorded to have crashed the economy of Cairo by handing out gold. Whatever you do, I think the name "Mali" and "Songhai" should be included somehow in the West Africa section.

In the "Jizya" section, some form of working definition should be given at the beginning of the paragraph instead of at the end. This would make the paragraph more easily readable and make more sense as a whole, instead of having the reader guessing at what it could possibly mean until the end (please, no cliffhangers).

The section "Trade with the African Interior" has a lot of unnecessary commas (most of them are unnecessary). The section on Tippu Tip is kind of confusing. I would consider expanding it / reworking it to make its point clearer.

Overall, great article! Grammar and mechanics are very good for the most part, and communication of the main points is clear. Suggestions: work on combining some of the sentences to make the paragraphs flow more smoothly and look for typos. Great job!

- Jonny Cochrane

Overall it looks good and you have a good amount of sources but, in the first paragraph try combining some of the sentences, its a bit choppy and if the sentences are combined it will flow better and be easier to read. Aslo like Jonny said try adding more hyperlinks to the article, they help expand what can be found about the specific topic of each section of the article.

-Baughn

References[edit]

  1. ^ Falola, Toyin (2002). Key Events in African History: A Reference Guide. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 9780313313233.
  2. ^ Stapleton, Timothy J. (2013-10-21). A Military History of Africa [3 volumes]. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313395703.
  3. ^ Middleton, John (2015-06). World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. ISBN 9781317451587. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  4. ^ Middleton, John (2015-06). World Monarchies and Dynasties. Routledge. ISBN 9781317451587. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  5. ^ Beckles, Hilary; Shepherd, Verene (2007). Trading Souls: Europe's Transatlantic Trade in Africans. Ian Randle Publishers. ISBN 9789766373061.
  6. ^ a b Adas, Michael (2001). Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History. Temple University Press. ISBN 9781566398329.
  7. ^ a b c Sardar, Ziauddin (2014-10-21). Mecca: The Sacred City. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 164. ISBN 9781620402665.
  8. ^ Conrad, David C. (2009-11). Empires of Medieval West Africa: Ghana, Mali, and Songhay. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 9781604131642. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  9. ^ a b Cohen, Mark R. (1994). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton University Press. ISBN 069101082X.
  10. ^ a b c d e Emon, Anver M. (2012-07-26). Religious Pluralism and Islamic Law: Dhimmis and Others in the Empire of Law. OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780199661633.
  11. ^ Stillman, Norman A. (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands. Jewish Publication Society. ISBN 9780827611559.
  12. ^ a b M., Maxon, Robert (2009). East Africa : an introductory history (3rd and rev. ed ed.). Morgantown: West Virginia University Press. ISBN 1933202467. OCLC 794702218. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Martin, B. G. (1974). "Arab Migrations to East Africa in Medieval Times". The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 7 (3): 367–390. doi:10.2307/217250.
  14. ^ Gavin., Thomas, (2011). The Rough Guide to Oman. London: Rough Guides. ISBN 9781405389358. OCLC 759806997.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  15. ^ a b c Tidy, Michael; Leeming, Donald (1980). A History of Africa, 1840-1914: 1840-1880. Hodder and Stoughton.
  16. ^ a b 1947-, Cooper, Frederick, (1997). Plantation slavery on the east coast of Africa. Portsmouth, N.H.: Heinemann. ISBN 0435074199. OCLC 36430607. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ a b c Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E. (2007). Cities of the Middle East and North Africa: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 299. ISBN 9781576079195.
  18. ^ a b (U.S.), Study Commission on U. S. Policy toward Southern Africa (1981). South Africa: Time Running Out : the Report of the Study Commission on U.S. Policy Toward Southern Africa. University of California Press. ISBN 9780520045477. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  19. ^ a b c d e f g Held in trust : Waqf in the Islamic world. Ghazaleh, Pascale,, Bouzidi, Fatiha,. Cairo, Egypt. ISBN 9789774163937. OCLC 893685769.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  20. ^ a b Amy., Singer, (2002). Constructing Ottoman beneficence : an imperial soup kitchen in Jerusalem. Albany: State University of New York Press. ISBN 9780585471198. OCLC 53093194.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ a b The public sphere in Muslim societies. Hoexter, Miriam., Eisenstadt, S. N. (Shmuel Noah), 1923-2010., Levtzion, Nehemia. Albany: State University of New York Press. 2002. ISBN 9780791453674. OCLC 53226174.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  22. ^ a b c Yaacov., Lev, (2005). Charity, endowments, and charitable institutions in medieval Islam. Gainesville: University Press of Florida. ISBN 9780813035895. OCLC 670429590.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ The public sphere in Muslim societies. Hoexter, Miriam., Eisenstadt, S. N. (Shmuel Noah), 1923-2010., Levtzion, Nehemia. Albany: State University of New York Press. 2002. ISBN 9780791453674. OCLC 53226174.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  24. ^ a b Philanthropy in the world's traditions. Ilchman, Warren Frederick., Katz, Stanley Nider., Queen, Edward L. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press. 1998. ISBN 9780253333926. OCLC 45729868.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  25. ^ Powers, David (October 1999). "The Islamic Family Endowment (Waqf)". Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law. 32 no. 4.
  26. ^ Siraj., Sait, (2006). Land, law and Islam : property and human rights in the Muslim world. Lim, Hilary. London: Zed Books. ISBN 9781842778104. OCLC 313730507.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  27. ^ Tourism in the Muslim world. Scott, Noel, 1958-, Jafari, Jafar. (1st ed ed.). Bingley: Emerald. 2010. ISBN 9781849509206. OCLC 694896430. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: others (link)
  28. ^ Back, Irit (2015-01-02). "From West Africa to Mecca and Jerusalem: The Tijāniyya on the Hajj Routes". The Journal of the Middle East and Africa. 6 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1080/21520844.2015.1026243. ISSN 2152-0844.
  29. ^ a b Economie morale et mutations de l'islam en Afrique subsaharienne. Vol. 231. Triaud, Jean-Louis,, Villalón, Leonardo Alfonso, (1957- ...).,. Bruxelles: Éd. De Boeck. DL 2009. ISBN 9782804102395. OCLC 690793981. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h Tourism in the Middle East : continuity, change and transformation. Daher, Rami. Clevedon: Channel View Publications. 2007. ISBN 9781845410513. OCLC 83977214.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  31. ^ a b c d e The Hajj : pilgrimage in Islam. Tagliacozzo, Eric,, Toorawa, Shawkat M.,. New York, NY. ISBN 9781107030510. OCLC 934585969.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
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