User:Codrinb/Drafts/List of battles in Romania

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The list of battles in Romania groups the battles who took place in the territory of modern Romania from ancient times till present. It is part of a series on the military history of Romania.

6th century BC[edit]

Year Battle Description
513 BC Battle of ? Darius subdues the Getae and east Thrace in his war against the Scythians

5th century BC[edit]

Peace? Really?!

4th century BC[edit]

Year Battle Description
339 BC Battles of ? Philip II against Scythians[1]
335 BC Battles of ? Alexander III of Macedon crosses the Danube[1]
313 BC Battle of ? Histria revolts against Lysimachus of Thrace[1]
310-309 BC Battle of Callatis (310 BC)? Lysimachus besieges Callatis[1]
late 4th century BC Battle of Histria? Histria, sacred area burnt[1]

3rd century BC[edit]

Year Battle Description
292 BC Battle of ? Lysimachus prisoner, perhaps in Piscul Crăsanilor
279 BC Battle of Histria (279 BC)? Celts attack Histria and Delphi[1]
262 BC Battle of ? Histria and Callatis war against Byzantium[1]

2nd century BC[edit]

Peace? Really?!

1st century BC[edit]

Year Battle Description
74 BC - 72 BC Battles of ? Burebista sided with the inhabitants of the Greek cities on the Western coast of the Black Sea when they were occupied by Varro Lucullus, the proconsul of the province of Macedonia during the Second Mithridatic War
61 BC Battle of Histria (61 BC) Coalition of Greeks and barbarians? defeats C. Antonius Hybrida at Histria[1]
c. 60 BC Battle of ? Burebista leads a policy of conquest of new territories: he attacks and vanquishes the Celtic tribes of Boii and Taurisci dwelling along the Middle Danube (in what is now Slovakia)[2]
c. 57 BC Battle of ? Burebista conquers the Black Sea shore, subjugating the Greek fortresses from Olbia to Apollonia, as well as the Danubian Plain all the way to the Balkans.[2]
27 BC Battle of ? Crassus triumphs over Geto-Dacians[3]

1st century[edit]

Year Battle Description
6-12 AD Battles of ? Sextus Aelius Catus destroys Muntenian towns[3]
14 AD Battle of Troesmis? Barbarians attack Troesmis[3]
26 AD Battle of ? Poppaeus crushes Dobrujan revolt[3]
84 AD Battles of ? Diurpaneus reorganizes the Dacian army, and begins minor raids upon the heavily fortified Roman province of Moesia, on the southern course of the Danube river
85 AD Battles of ?? Any in Dobruja?? King Duras orders more vigorous attacks into Moesia, raids being led by Diurpaneus; Led by Diurpaneus the Dacians cross the Danube, wreak considerable havoc and kill the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus.[4]; Summer85 AD - Praetorian prefect Fuscus successfully drives the Dacians back across the border[5]
87 AD Battle of Tapae (87)? (First Battle of Tapae) The Roman legions are ambushed at Tapae and face disaster with complete destruction of Legio V Alaudae [6]; five or six legions commanded by general Cornelius Fuscus who dies in battle
88 AD Battle of Tapae (88)? Late 88, a battle takes place mainly in the same area, at Tapae, and this time the Romans are victorious[7]; Tettius Iulianus was in command
92 AD Battle of Adamclisi (92 AD) A coalition of Dacians and Rhoxolani Sarmatians completely slaughtered the Legio XXI Rapax

2nd century[edit]

Year Battle Description
101-102 Battles of ? first campaign of Emperor Trajan against Dacians[8]; Romans build castra at Drobeta, Sucidava, Romula, Dierna, Tibiscum, Bucium (Orăştioara), Arcidava, Centum Putei, Berzobis, Micia, Gilău, Bologa(?), Buciumi, Tihău-Odorhei line, Mălăeşti, Drajna de Sus, Angustia(?), Bumbeşti, Ricari[8]
101 Second Battle of Tapae (3rd really, no?) Trajan defeats Decebalus, ending the Trajan's Dacian Wars.
102 Battle of Adamclisi Trajan defeats Dacians, Roxolani & Bastarnae in modern Romania.
105-106 Battles of ? Second Dacian War; Limes Alutanus: Buridava, Sliveni, Arutela; Romans build camps at Potaissa, Napoca, Porolissum, Ulmetum; Danube limes[8]
106 Battle of Sarmizegetusa Trajan victorious in the siege of the Dacian capital of Sarmizegetusa.
160 AD Battle of ? Costoboci invade[9]
162-172, 177-80 Battles of ? Marcomannic Wars[9]; Ulpia Traiana suburban villas burned[9]; Slăveni camp destroyed[9]

3rd century[edit]

Year Battle Description
238-244 Battles of ? Gordian III emperor; Carpi invade Dobruja[10]
244-249 Battles of ? Philip the Arab emperor; Carpi raid Ricari, Jidava[10]
248 Battles of ? Goths invade Moesia[10]
260-268 Battle of Tibiscum? Gallienus emperor; Goths sack Tibiscum[10]
263 Battle of Callatis (263)? Sarmatians burn Callatis extramural quarter[10]
267 Battle of Histria (267)? Histria sacked[10]
268-270 Battle of Tomis (268)? Claudius Gothicus emperor; Goths attack Tomis; Claudius beats them at Naissus[10]
295 Battle of Civitas Tropaensium? Goths destroy Civitas Tropaensium (Tropaeum Traiani)[11]

4th century[edit]

Year Battle Description
332 Battles of ? Romans had tried to retake control of the north of the Danube: in Constantine the Great's campaign from 332 100000 goths were killed in battles on north of the Danube.[12][13][14]
375 Battle of Dinogetia Huns sack Dinogetia[11]

Dark Ages[edit]

Oh boy, this "peaceful" period needs LIGHT!

For 1000 years, numerous migrating peoples including the Goths, Huns, Gepids, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars, Magyars, Cumans and Mongols overran the territory of modern Romania. In the 13th century, a number of small Romanian states emerged and evolved into the medieval principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia. Transylvania, conquered by the Magyars, became an autonomous part of Hungary.

Year Battle Description

13th century[edit]

Year Battle Description
1241 Battles of ? In 1241 Transylvania suffered greatly during the Mongol invasion of Europe. The overall invasion was planned and carried out by Subutai, under the nominal command of Batu Khan. The attack on Transylvania was commanded by Güyük Khan, the future great khan of the Mongols. Güyük invaded Transylvania in three columns through the Tihuţa and Oituz Passes and the Timiş-Cerna Gap, while Subutai attacked through the fortified Verecke Pass towards central Hungary. Güyük sacked Sibiu, Cisnadie, Alba Iulia, Bistriţa, Cluj-Napoca, Oradea as well as the Hungarian king's silver mine at Rodna.

14th century[edit]

Year Date Battle Description
1330 November 9-12 Battle of Posada Between Basarab I of Wallachia and Charles I Robert of Hungary. The small Wallachian army led by Basarab, formed of cavalry, foot archers, as well as local peasants, managed to ambush and defeat the 30,000-strong Hungarian army, in a mountainous region near the border between Oltenia and Severin. The battle resulted in a major Wallachian victory and disaster for Charles Robert, becoming a turning point in the politics of Hungary, which had to abandon its hopes of extending the kingdom to the Black Sea. For Wallachia, the victory meant an increase in morale and the further independent evolution of the state.
1395 May 17 Battle of Rovine Between the Wallachian army led by Voivod Mircea cel Bătrân (Mircea the Elder) against the Ottoman invasion led by sultan Bayezid I. The Ottoman army, numbering approximately 40,000 men, faced the much smaller Wallachian army, which was about 10,000 men. Legend says that on the eve of the battle, dressed as a peace emissary, Mircea cel Bătrân talked to Bayezid I asking him to leave Wallachia, and promising to grant him safe passage. However, the sultan insisted on fighting.

15th century[edit]

Year Date Battle Description
1442 March 18-25 Battle of Hermannstadt Between the army of the Hungarian Kingdom under John Hunyadi and the Ottoman Turks, near Sântimbru (Marosszentimre) and Hermannstadt (Sibiu, Szeben). It was Hunyadi's third victory over the Ottomans after the relief of Smederevo in 1437 and the defeat of Ishak Beg midway between Semendria and Belgrade in 1441.
1462 June 17 The Night Attack of Târgovişte Between forces of Vlad III the Impaler of Wallachia and Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire. The conflict initially started with Vlad's refusal to pay the jizya (tax on non-Muslims) to the Sultan and intensified when Vlad Ţepeş invaded Bulgaria and impaled over 23,000 Turks and Bulgarians. Mehmed then raised a great army with the objective to conquer Wallachia and annex it to his empire. The two leaders fought a series of skirmishes, the most notable one being the Night Attack where Vlad Ţepeş attacked the Turkish camp in the night in an attempt to kill Mehmed. The assassination attempt failed and Mehmed marched to the Wallachian capital of Târgovişte, where he discovered another 20,000 impaled Turks and Bulgarians. Horrified, the Sultan and his troops retreated.
1467 December 15 Battle of Baia Between the Moldavian Prince, Stephen the Great and Hungarian King, Matthias Corvinus. The battle was the last Hungarian attempt to subdue the independent Moldavia, as previous attempts had ended in failure. Corvinus invaded Moldavia as a consequence of Stephen's annexation of Chilia—a fortress and harbour at the coast of the Black Sea, which at the time was controlled by Hungarian and Wallachian forces, though it had belonged to Moldavia centuries earlier. The conflict ended with a bitter defeat for the Hungarians, who had an army more than three times the size of the Moldavian force. This put an end to all Hungarian claims on Moldavia. Corvinus almost died after being thrice wounded by arrows and barely made his escape to Transylvania.
1475 January 10 Battle of Vaslui Between Stephen III of Moldavia and the Ottoman Beylerbey of Rumelia, Hadân Suleiman Pasha. The battle took place at Podul Înalt (the High Bridge), near the town of Vaslui, in Moldavia (now part of eastern Romania). The Ottoman troops numbered up to 120,000, facing about 40,000 Moldavian troops, plus smaller numbers of allied and mercenary troops.[15] Stephen inflicted a decisive defeat on the Ottomans, described as "the greatest ever secured by the Cross against Islam,"[16] with casualties, according to Venetian and Polish records, reaching beyond 40,000 on the Ottoman side. Mara Brankovic (Mara Hatun), the former younger wife of Murad II, told a Venetian envoy that the invasion had been worst ever defeat for the Ottomans.[17] Stephen was later awarded the title "Athleta Christi" (Champion of Christ) by Pope Sixtus IV, who referred to him as "Verus christiane fidei aletha" (The true defender of the Christian faith).[18]
1476 July 26 Battle of Valea Albă Between the Moldavian army of Ştefan cel Mare and an invading Ottoman army which was commanded personally by the Sultan Mehmed II.
1476 after July 26 Siege of Neamţ Citadel In 1476, after defeating the Moldavian armies in the Battle of Valea Albă, the Ottoman Empire Sultan Mehmet II forced the Moldavian voivode Ştefan cel Mare to retreat to Cetatea Neamţului. However, as legend says, his mother refused to let him enter the stronghold, and instead advised him to go north into what is now Bukovina and gather a new army. While Ştefan was in Bukovina gathering more forces, Mehmet II laid siege to Cetatea Neamţului. He positioned his cannons on a nearby hill, and began bombarding the stronghold, causing much damage. The Moldavian garrison was at the point of surrender, when a German prisoner held in the dungeons had the idea of using the cannons against the Ottoman position on the hill. His idea was put into practice, and soon the camp of the Turks was being bombarded, forcing Mehmet II to leave the area. The event is recorded by the late Moldavian chronicle of Ion Neculce.
1479 October 13 Battle of Breadfield It was the most tremendous conflict fought in Transylvania up to that time in the Hungarian-Turkish Wars taking place on October 13, 1479, on the Breadfield Zsibód (Şibot) near the Maros River. The Hungarian army was led by Pál Kinizsi, István Báthory, Vuk Branković, and Basarab Laiotă cel Bătrân. The result of the battle was an important victory for the Kingdom of Hungary.

16th century[edit]

Year Date Battle Description
1595 August 23 Battle of Călugăreni Between the Wallachian army led by Michael the Brave and the Ottoman army led by Sinan Pasha. It was part of the Long War, fought between Christian and Ottoman forces at the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries.
1595 October 18 Battle of Târgovişte (1595) On 6 September, the Transylvanian prince Sigismund Bathory arrived with around 7,500 cavalry to support Michael the Brave. Early October another 1,500 troops from the Habsburg empire and 300 cavalry from Toscana arrived. These combined forces attacked the Ottomans and eventually defeated them.
1595 October (September?) 19–20 Battle of Cecora (1595) Took place during an expedition of Jan Zamoyski, of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, to Moldavia, as part of the Moldavian Magnate Wars.
1595 October 22 Battle of Bucharest (1595) On 6 September, the Transylvanian prince Sigismund Bathory arrived with around 7,500 cavalry to support Michael the Brave. Early October another 1,500 troops from the Habsburg empire and 300 cavalry from Toscana arrived. These combined forces attacked the Ottomans and eventually defeated them.
1595 October 27–30 Battle of Giurgiu It was one battle of the Long War, from 1591 or 1593 to 1606, the border conflict between the Habsburg Monarchy and the Ottoman Empire over Balkan territories.[19] Michael the Brave defeated the Turkish army led by Sinan Pasha, pushing them on the right side of the Danube.
1595 Battle of Putineiu Buzescu Brothers vs Tatars
1599 October 18 Battle of Şelimbăr Wallachian army of Michael the Brave defeats the Transylvanian-Hungarian army of Andrew Báthory.
1600 September 18 Battle of Mirăslău Between the Wallachian troops led by Michael the Brave supported by Szeklers and the troops of Austrian general Giorgio Basta supported by the Hungarian nobility of Transylvania.

17th century[edit]

Year Date Battle Description
1601 August 3 Battle of Guruslău Between the troops of the Habsburg Empire led by Giorgio Basta, the Cossacks and Wallachia led by Michael the Brave on one side and the Transylvanian troops led by Sigismund Báthory on the other side. It was part of a series of military encounters developed between the Ottoman Empire and opposing European states during 1591–1606 (see also The Long War).
1603 July 17 Battle of Braşov Between the troops of Wallachia led by Radu Şerban and the Habsburg Empire on one side and the Transylvanian troops led by Mózes Székely on the other side
1620 17 September - 7 October Battle of Cecora (1620) Between the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (aided by rebel Moldavian troops) and Ottoman forces (backed by Nogais), fought from 17 September to 7 October 1620 in Moldavia, near the Prut River.
1653 May 27 Battle of Finta Between Matei Basarab's Wallachian army and a combined Moldo-Cossack force under Vasile Lupu and Tymofiy Khmelnytsky.
late 17th century Siege of John III Sobieski A historical, but romantisized event, would have taken place probably during the early years Dimitrie Cantemir's rule in Moldavia, during the latter part of the 17th century and early 18th century. The story is as following: on their way back after raiding Moldavia, the 25 000 men-strong army of Polish king John III Sobieski came across Cetatea Neamţului, defended by less than 20 men. The Poles attacked the stronghold, believing that it contained necessary provisions. After over a week of siege, the small Moldavian garrison surrendered. Legend has it that, moved by the determined opposition from such a minuscule force, the Polish monarch granted life and free passage to the Moldavians in the garrison and gave them ranks in the Polish army. Although a few historians contest the authenticity of this legendary siege, it nevertheless had a very important place in 19th century Romanian consciousness, finding its most popular version in Costache Negruzzi's novelette called Sobieski şi românii (Sobieski and the Romanians: the title in itself indicates his attitude towards the events described).

18th century[edit]

Year Date Battle Description
1705 November 15 Battle of Jibou Between the Kuruc (Hungarian) army (supported by French contingents) and forces of the Habsburg Empire, Kingdom of Denmark and Vojvodian Serbs in Zsibó, Principality of Transylvania (today: Jibou, Romania). The Austrian marshal Ludwig Herbeville marched against Transylvania. Although the Kuruc-French army was equal in size to the combined Austrian, Danish and Serbian forces, Francis II Rákóczi went on the defense due to the inferior training of his troops. The Danes and Austrians launched a powerful attack on the French and Kuruc infantry. Although the Kuruc infantry held its ground, the Kuruc cavalry could not launch an attack due to a lack of leadership and an overly muddy battlefield. The Austrian cavalry was thus capable of flanking the Hungarians on the left, forcing the Hungarians to retreat and crushing their cavalry in the process. After the battle, the combined Austrian-Danish army bought Transylvania.
1711 Battle of Cavnic Hungarians/Habsburgs vs Tatars

19th century[edit]

Year Date Battle Description
1821 June 19 Battle of Drăgăşani Fought in Drăgăşani, Wallachia, between the Ottoman forces of Sultan Mahmud II and the Greek Filiki Etaireia insurgents. It was a prelude to the Greek War of Independence.
1848 September 13 Battle of Dealul Spirii (ro:Bătălia din Dealul Spirii) The last armed confrontation disputed in the Romanian territory between Wallachian military structures and the Ottoman army.
1853 November 4 Battle of Oltenița Part of the Crimean War: An Ottoman army under the command of Omar Pasha defeated the Russian forces.

20th century[edit]

Year Date Battle Description
1916 August 15 — November 26 Battle of Transylvania Was the first major operation of the Romanian Campaign during World War I, beginning on 15 August 1916. It started as an attempt by the Romanian Army to seize the disputed province of Transylvania and potentially knock Austria-Hungary out of the war. Although initially successful, the offensive was brought to a halt after Bulgaria's attack on Dobruja, and a successful German and Austro-Hungarian counterattack after September 18 eventually forced the Romanian Army to retreat back to the Carpathians by late November.
1916 September 17-19 First Battle of Cobadin Between the Bulgarian Third Army and the Russo - Romanian Army of the Dobrogea. The battle ended in Entente tactical victory and forced the Central Powers to hold their offensive and assume a defensive stance till the middle of October.
1916 September 18 Battle of Haţeg ? In the meantime, Erich von Falkenhayn, recently fired as Chief of Staff, assumed command of the Ninth Army and begun a counterattack against the Romanians. On 18 September, German forces struck the Romanian First Army near Haţeg, forcing them to retreat.
1916 September 26 Battle of Sibiu (1916) ? The elite Alpen Korps repulsed a Romanian attack on Sibiu
1916 September 29 — October 5 Flămânda Offensive An offensive across the Danube mounted by the Romanian 2nd Army during World War I. The battle represented a consistent effort by the Romanian Army to stop the Central Powers south offensive led by August von Mackensen. The battle ended as a tactical victory for the Central Powers.
1916 October 4 Battle of Brașov (1916) ? The Romanian Second Army was defeated at Brașov
1916 October 19 — 25 Second Battle of Cobadin Between the Central Powers, chiefly the Bulgarian Third Army and the Entente, represented by the Russo - Romanian Army of the Dobrogea. The battle ended in decisive victory for the Central Powers and the occupation of the strategic port of Constanţa and capture of the railway between that city and Cernavodă.
1916 November 10 Battle of Vulcan Pass ? Falkenhayn launched his main attack on the Vulcan Pass, inflicting heavy losses on the Romanians.
1916 December 1 Battle of the Argeş A battle of the Romanian Campaign of World War I, fought along the line of the Argeş River in Romania between Austro-German forces of the Central Powers and Romanian forces.[20]
1916 November 28 Prunaru Charge One of the most daring actions of the Romanian Armed Forces in World War I. The cavalry charge took place in Prunaru (today part of Bujoreni commune, Teleorman County), and was a component operation of the Battle of Bucharest.
1916 November 25 — December 3 Battle of Bucharest Central Powers occupied the Romanian capital and forced the Romanian Government, as well as the remnants of the Romanian Army to retreat to Moldova and re-establish its capital at Iaşi. The sheer number of troops involved, as well as the large area of operations, make it one of the most complex battles fought on Romanian soil during the war.
1917 July 22 — August 1 Battle of Mărăşti Was an offensive operation of the Romanian and Russian Armies intended to encircle and destroy the German 9th Army. The operation was planned to occur in tandem with the Nămoloasa offensive; however, this operation was abandoned before it began.
1917 August 6 — September 8 Battle of Mărăşeşti Major battle fought during World War I between German Empire and Kingdom of Romania
1917 August 8 — 20 Second Battle of Oituz Between Romanian and, to a lesser extent, Russian forces on one side and German and Austro-Hungarian forces on the other, during the Romanian Campaign of World War I.
1941–1944 June 26, 1941 - May 9, 1945 Black Sea campaigns (1941–1944) Operations of the Axis and Soviet naval forces in the Black Sea and its coastal regions during World War II between 1941 and 1944, including in support of the land forces, and non-combat operations.
1944 April 8 — June 6 First Jassy–Kishinev Offensive Between the Soviets and the Axis powers of World War II. The offensive was actually a coordinated invasion of Romania conducted by Red Army's 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts, in accordance with Joseph Stalin's strategy of projecting Soviet military power and political influence into the Balkans.[21]
1944 April 9-12 First Battle of Târgu Frumos Part of the First Jassy-Kishinev Offensive of World War II, fought between Axis powers commanded by Otto Wöhler and Soviet forces led by Ivan Konev.
1944 April 12 Battle of Podu Iloaiei Part of the First Jassy–Kishinev Offensive of World War II fought between the Germans and the Soviets. The battle was a reaction to the Soviet defeat at the First Battle of Târgu Frumos.[22] It consisted mainly of a tank battle near Scobalteni where the First Romanian Panzerdivision held off the Soviet tanks for a single day. At the end of the battle, the Germans managed to drive the Soviets back to the positions they held before the battle.[23]
1944 May 2-8 Second Battle of Târgu Frumos Part of the First Jassy-Kishinev Offensive, was a military engagement primarily between the Wehrmacht and Red Army forces, near Iaşi, Romania.
1944 August 20–29 Jassy–Kishinev Offensive (August 1944) Was a Soviet offensive against Axis forces, which took place in Eastern Romania. The 2nd and 3rd Ukrainian Fronts of the Red Army engaged Army Group South Ukraine, which consisted of combined German and Romanian formations, in an operation to reclaim the Moldavian SSR and destroy the Axis forces in the region, opening a way into Romania and the Balkans.
1944 September 5 — October 8 Battle of Turda Part of the wider Battle of Romania. Troops from the Hungarian 2nd Army and the German 8th Army fought a defensive action against Romanian and Soviet forces. The battle was one of the largest fought in Transylvania during World War II.
1944 September 14–19 Battle of Păuliş Part of the wider Battle of Romania of World War II. It was fought between Hungarian and Romanian troops, after the Romanian royal coup which put Romania on the Allied side.

Sources[edit]

Flags and coats of arms[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h MacKendrick 2000, p. 216.
  2. ^ a b Pippidi 1976, p. 116-117.
  3. ^ a b c d MacKendrick 2000, p. 217.
  4. ^ Jones 1992, p. 138.
  5. ^ Jones 1992, p. 139.
  6. ^ Jones 1992, p. 141.
  7. ^ Jones 1992, p. 142.
  8. ^ a b c MacKendrick 2000, p. 218.
  9. ^ a b c d MacKendrick 2000, p. 219.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g MacKendrick 2000, p. 220.
  11. ^ a b MacKendrick 2000, p. 221.
  12. ^ Origo Constantini 6.32 mentions the actions
  13. ^ Eusebius Vita Constantini IV.6
  14. ^ Charles Manson Odahl Constantine and the Christiane Empire chapter X
  15. ^ Kronika Polska mentions 40,000 Moldavian troops; Gentis Silesiæ Annales mentions 120,000 Ottoman troops and "no more than" 40,000 Moldavian troops; the letter of Stephen addressed to the Christian countries, sent on January 25, 1475, mentions 120,000 Ottoman troops; see also The Annals of Jan Długosz, p. 588;
  16. ^ The Balkans: A History of Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Rumania, Turkey
  17. ^ Istoria lui Ştefan cel Mare, p. 133
  18. ^ Saint Stephen the Great in his contemporary Europe (Respublica Christiana), p. 141
  19. ^ Cathal J. Nolan (2006). The age of wars of religion, 1000-1650: an encyclopedia of global warfare and civilization. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 846. ISBN 9780313337345. Retrieved 2012-03-23.
  20. ^ "Weapons and Warfare (B)". The Probert Encyclopedia. Retrieved 30 May 2010.
  21. ^ Glantz, p. XIII.
  22. ^ Glantz, p. 69.
  23. ^ Glantz, p. 70.

References[edit]

Ancient[edit]

Modern[edit]

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